GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY
CLASS # 7
STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS - PART II
WHAT ARE THE MAJOR SLEEP DISORDERS?
1. Insomnia. - persistent problems in falling or staying asleep.
From middle age on, sleep is seldom uninterrupted. Being occasionally awakened is the norm
2. Narcolepsy - periodic, overwhelming sleepiness 1 in 2000
When an individual drops off to sleep they immediately enter REM sleep
Must exercise extreme caution re driving
American Sleep disorders Association says: “Snoozing is second only to Boozing”
re traffic accidents
It is treated with medication - provigil, nuvigil and melatonin
Genetic cause….. Low levels of orexin…a neurotransmitter linked to alertness
3. Sleep apnea - 1 in 20** - apnea means “with no breath” and people with this condition intermittently stop breathing during sleep…
Usually snoring, followed by stoppage in breathing, then snorting in air…can happen hundreds of time during the night
Individuals feel sleepy and irritable during the day
It can contribute to depression, hypertension and increased risk of heart attack and stroke
Associated wih obesity… .but not in all cases.
Treatement….c-pap face mask or surgery, and in the cases of obesity, weightloss
4. Night terrors - mostly in children - not like regular nightmares - occur during Stage 4 sleep.
Nightmares occur in REM sleep
They do not fully awaken…but may get up and appear terrified
5. Sleep walking (somnambulism ) and sleep talking - …also stage 4 sleep disorder
These tend to run in families. Both are unrecalled by the individual the next morning. It is fine to awaken the person who is sleepwalking!
Sleep eating
These type of sleep disorders are called Parasomnias - they are sleep disorders
Involving the activation of physiological systems at inappropriate times during the sleep-wake transitions.
Ambien has been implicated in some parasomnia episodes
www.yahoo.comvideo search parasomnias Parasomnias : The Science of Unsound Sleep - ABC
ALTERED STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS
1. Hypnosis - altered state of consciousness or altered state of attention in which the individual is unusually receptive to suggestions.
History - late 1800’s an Austrian physician, Mesmer, was able to cure patients by passing magnets over their bodies. He called this, “animal magnetism” which he defined as an intangible force that passes from Dr. to patient.
This theory was called “mesmerism”, and was a from of hypnosis.
Today, we continue to use the term “mesmerized” to mean hypnotized or enthralled.
Those who study hypnosis have agreed that its power resides not in the hypnotist but In the subject’s openness to suggestions.
Hypnotists have no magical mind-control power - they are just able to engage people’s ability to focus on certain images or behaviors.
Who can be hypnotized? - anyone who can turn their attention inward and imagine is able to experience some degree of hypnosis …especially if they have been led to expect it.
Look upward at the ceiling for 30 seconds……now imagine hearing “your eyes are growing tired…your eyelids are becoming heavy”… Anyone’s eyes would feel tired under those circumstances, but would likely attribute the heavy eyelids to the hypnotist’s abilities and then become even more open to suggestions.
Hypnosis is indeed an effective and accepted form of treatment…and research supports its usefulness as a supplement to therapy….with a better outcome in 70% of cases studied, that with therapy alone.
Research indicates that hypnosis can be helpful in the treatment of obesity, but drug, alcohol, and smoking addictions have not responded well to hypnosis.
Hypnosis has been shown to be effective with pain control and in alleviating pain to the point where patients are able to undergo surgery without anesthesia. In Belgium, there is one medical team that has performed over 5000 surgeries with a combination of hypnosis, local anesthesia, and a mild sedative. Only about 10 % of patients are able to reach the level of deep hypnosis required for anesthesia-free surgery, but up to 50 % of patients can gain some pain relief from hypnosis.
In surgical studies, patients who received hypnosis as part of their surgical treatment, required less medication, recovered sooner, and were discharged sooner than patients who did not receive hypnosis.
Although someone in a hypnotic state appears to be sleeping, it is not the same because they are aware of what is happening and they are able to recall it later…unless instructed to forget it.
Brain waves of hypnotized subjects resemble that pattern of brain waves found in non-hypnotized subjects who are in a relaxed waking state and who are engage in mental imagery.
Discuss “self-hypnosis” and meditation.
PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS -
are substances that act on the nervous system to alter consciousness, modify perceptions, and change moods.
Not to be confused with psychotropic medications - which are medications prescribed for the treatment of various psychological disorders - for ex. Antidepressants, anti-anxiety medications, etc.
3 major categories of psychoactive drugs: depressants, stimulants, and hallucinogens
1. Depressants - so called because they depress (slow down) mental and physical activity…..not to be confused with causing a depressed mood!
ALCOHOL -
Disinhibition increases harmful tendencies ( angry people become aggressive) and increases helpful tendencies (tipsy person leaving an extravagant tip)
The urges you would feel if sober, are the ones you will more likely act upon when intoxicated.
Slowed Neural processing - low doses cause relaxation; larger doses result in slowed reaction time, slurred speech, and deterioration of motor skills, impaired judgment, and sedation….a deadly combination for driving
Memory Disruption - disrupts the processing of recent experiences into long-term memory…can result in blackouts….no recall of what happened while intoxicated…may be due to alcohol suppressing REM sleep which helps to consolidate memory.
Reduced self-awareness - Alcohol not only impairs judgment and memory, but it also reduces self-awareness. This might explain why losing a business deal, a football game, or break-up can result in a drinking binge…..it suppresses their awareness of failures or
Reduced self-control - alcohol focusses attention on the immediate situation and away from any future consequences…and therefore reduces impulse control or self-control
In surveys of rapists, more than half admitted drinking before committing their offense
Expectancy effects - like other psychoactive drugs, the effects that alcohol has on behavior comes not just from its alteration of brain chemistry, but also from the user’s expectations.
Studies where some people were not given alcohol, but thought they had been….acted the same as people who did have alcohol.
Reduced self-control + expectance effects = The Perfect Storm of alcohol + sex
More than 600 studies have explored the link between drinking and impulsive sex, with the overwhelming majority finding a positive correlation.
Correlation does not mean causation…..
CHAPTER 7 LEARNING
Definition of Learning = a relatively permanent change in behavior and occurs through experience
We are going to look at two types of learning : associative learning and observational learning
(I.) Associative learning occurs when a connection or association is made between 2 events.
Conditioning is the process of learning associations
There are 2 types of conditioning - classical and operant
Classical conditioning - we learn the association between two stimuli and because of this, learn to anticipate events
Ex. We learn that a flash of lightening signals the sound of thunder, so when lightening flashes nearby, we brace ourselves.
Operant conditioning - we learn the association between a behavior and a consequence. We learn to repeat behavior that is followed by good results and to avoid behavior that is followed by bad results.
We’ll explore classical and operant conditioning separately although, often, they occur together.
For example on one Japanese cattle ranch, the rancher put collars with pagers on each of his cattle…and he calls them from his cellphone. He used classical conditioning to get the cattle to learn the association between the beep on the pager and the arrival of food. And he used operant conditioning to teach them that going to the food trough would be rewarded by food.
The other type of learning, besides associative learning, is called observational learning- by watching others we learn new behaviors…
this includes language and reading where we learn things that we ourselves have not experienced or observed.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONINGwww.youtube.comivan Pavlov - classical conditioning 3:55 the reenactment
Food in the mouth automatically triggers saliva….(UCS) unconditioned stimulus
Salivation in response to the food was unlearned….(UCR) unconditioned response
The bell, light, or metronome became the…..(CS) conditioned stimulus…
.learned
Salivation to the bell, light, metronome became the ..(CR) conditioned response-learned
Another example:A cake is baking in the oven and your mouth begins to water..
What is the UCS - unconditioned stimulus…..the cake and how it tastes
What is the UCR - unconditioned Response - salivation
What is the CS- conditioned stimulus…..aroma ( which has become assoicated with the taste)
What is the CR - conditioned response….salivation to the aroma
Other important terms for Classical Conditioning:
1. Acquisition
2. Generalization
3. Discrimination
4. Extinction
5. Spontaneous Recovery
1. Acquisition = initial learning of the stimulus-response relationship
Timing is an imortant issue in acquisition……how much time should elapse between presenting the neutral stimulus ( which will become the conditioned stimulus) (bell )and the unconditioned stimulus (food)?
In most cases, ½ a second
In most cases, if the time interval is too great, it will be hard to associate the stimuli
If the neutral stimulus (bell )is presented after the unconditioned stimulus (food), it will likely be ignored.
Higher-order conditioning also called second-order conditioning -
Original acquisition is known as first stage conditioning
When a new neutral stimulus (light) becomes associated with the previous CS (bell), the light can then become a CS with the CR of salivating…
.Higher -order conditioning tends to be a weaker association than first stage conditioning.
Ex. British children were shown pictures of new cartoon characters paired with either ice cream or Brussel sprouts. The children liked the characters paired with ice cream better.
UCS - ice cream or brussel sprouts
UCR - saliva or distaste
CS - cartoon characte
rCR - saliva or distaste
2. Generalization - in classical conditioning, it’s the tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS
Pavlov found that the dogs responded with drooling to a whistle, even though it had not been paired with the food….it was just similar enough to the bell, to get the CR of saliva.
This is different from higher-order conditioning where the neutral stimulus is significantly different and is paired with another CS.
Generalization can be adaptive..as when toddlers taught to fear moving cars also become afraid of moving trucks
3. Discrimination - is the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli.
Slightly different stimuli can be followed by vastly different consequences.
When confronted by a pit bull, your heart my race…but confronted by a golden retriever, it probably will not
4. Extinction - the diminished responding that occurs when the CS (bell) no longer signals the arrival of the UCS (food).
Pavlov found that when he presented the bell repeatedly without presenting the food, the dogs salivated less and less.
5. Spontaneous Recovery - the reappearance of a weakened CR (saliva) after a pause.
Pavlov’s work in classical conditioning paved the way for John Watson one of the early behaviorists.
Watson and the other behaviorists believed that human behaviors and emotions could all be explained as conditioned responses.
Watson and his colleague, Raynor, conducted the now classic experiment involving “Little Albert”. - 1920
They took little 11-month-old Albert and conducted an experiment to show how specific fears might be conditioned.
They gave Little Albert a white rat to play with and whenever he went to touch it, they struck a hammer against a steel bar just above his head, creating a loud noise.
After 7 repetitions of seeing the rat and hearing the loud noise, Albert began to cry at the sight of the rat.
5 days later, Albert showed generalization of his conditioned response by reacting with fear to a rabbit…. A dog…..and a sealskin coat…..but not to objects that were different, such as toys.
In the case of Little Albert, what was the Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)?….the loud noise
What was the Unconditioned Response (UCR)?….the fear response
The Conditioned Stimulus (CS)?…the rat
The Conditioned Response (CR)?….fear
Obviously, this experiment would not be allowed under today’s ethical guidelines.
Furthermore, Albert was never counterconditioned to his fear.
Counterconditioning is a classical conditioning procedure for weakening a conditioned response (CR) by associating the fear-provoking stimulus (CS) with a new response that is incompatible with fear.
The case of Peter in 1924 demonstrated the use of counter conditioning.
Peter had a number of fears that were present when the experiment began….these fears had not been conditioned in a laboratory.
He was afraid of white rats, fur coats, frogs, fish, and mechanical toys.
To extinguish the fear response, a rabbit was brought into view, and Peter was fed crackers and milk.
Each time the rabbit was presented and crackers and milk were presented…
the rabbit was brought closer and closer each time without illiciting the fear response, until Peter was able to pet the rabbit
.In the case of Peter….In the experiment, the UCS was…………..food
The UCR………………………………......taste/pleasure
The CS ……………………………rabbit
The CR………………………………......taste/pleasure
OPERANT CONDITIONING
In operant conditioning organisms learn to associate their own actions with consequences.
In classical conditioning we ask: is the organism learning associations between events it does not control?
In operant conditioning we ask: is it learning associations between its behavior and consequences?
At the foundation of operant conditioning is Thorndike’s Law of Effect - which states that rewarded behavior is likely to recur
B.F. Skinner , who became modern behaviorism’s most influential and controversial figure, built off of Thorndike’s Law of Effect and through experimentation developed principles of behavior control through operant conditioning
Skinner used Shaping - a procedure in which reinforcers, such as food, gradually guide an animal’s actions toward a desired behavior.
This is done by rewarding successive approximations to the desired behavior and ignoring all other responses.
Skinner developed the Skinner box for conducting operant conditioning experiments with rats.
Mcgraw-hill connect…………………..shaping
TYPES OF REINFORCERS
A reinforcer = any consequence that strengthens behavior
A reinforcer can be tangible - such as food or money
Or intangible - such as praise or attention
Or an activity - watching TV, going for a walk
Up until now we’ve been mostly discussing positive reinforcement which strengthens a response by presenting a typically pleasurable stimulus after a response.
But there is also an second kind of reinforcement - negative reinforcement which strengthens a response by reducing or removing something undersirable or unpleasant
Negative reinforcement is not punishm Rather, negative reinforcementRemoves a punishing or aversive event.
Ex. Shutting of the alarm clock - negative reinforcement
Taking aspirin for a headache
Fastening seatbelt to turn off beeping
Primary Reinforcers - are unlearned ; innately satisfying - for ex. Food, relief from pain
Secondary Reinforcers - also known as conditioned reinforcersThey get their power through learned association with primary reinforcers Ex. Money, good grades,
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
Continuous reinforcement - reinforcing every time the behavior occurs
Partial reinforcement - also called intermittent reinforcement behaviors are sometimes reinforced, and sometimes not
Skinner compared 4 schedules of partial reinforcement: page 261 in book
1. Fixed-ratio schedules - reinforce behavior after a set number of responsesFor ex. Buy ten, get one free produces high rates of responding
2. Variable-ratio schedules - reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responsesFor ex. Slot-machinesFishingHigh rate of responding….because higher rates will yield more rewards
3. Fixed -interval schedules - reinforced for the first response after a fixed time period.Responses increase as the anticipate time of reward draws near, then drops off until anticipation begins again…..ex. Checking for the mail more frequently when it is due Checking to see if the jello has set yet…..a choppy, stop-start pattern
4. Variable - interval schedules - reinforced for the first response after a varying time interval.Slow, steady responding - no way of knowing when the wait will be over Ex. Checking e-mail
Which schedule is it?
Door - to -door salespeople -……… variable ratio
Checking the oven to see if the cookies are ready………….fixed interval
Frequent flyer programs with free flight after so many miles……..fixed ratio
. PUNISHMENT
- Reinforcement increases a behavior. Punishment decreases a behavior
see p. 263 re positive and negative punishment
Mcgraw-hill connect ……………..ebook……………reinforcement and punishment
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
Observational learning - learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates behavior. This is also called imitation or modeling.
Mcgraw-hill connect…………..ebook…………………..observational learning
Bandura in 1986 described 4 main processes that are involved in observational learning
:1. Attention - you need to pay attention to what the model is doing
2. Retention - you need to code the information and keep it in memory so that you can retrieve it when needed
3. Motor reproduction - the process of actually imitating the behavio
r4. Reinforcement - you need the right incentive or conditions in order to repeat the behavior
