INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY - I/O
The text begins this chapter with a question….What would you do if you won the lottery?
Would you quit your job?
2004 study of 117 lottery winners in Ohio over a 12 year period
Over 60% continued at their current job.
Some quit briefly and others started their own businesses.
Only 4% stopped working completely.
How much time do we spend at work?
U.S. workers put in more hours than anywhere else in the world…and from 1990 to 2000, it has increased by nearly 1 week in a 1 year period.
In Europe, the typical vacation benefits are 6 weeks, compared to 2 wks here.
Recent riots in France, which is trying to raise the retirement age from 60 to 62.
In the U.S. the retirement age depends on the age bracket, but is 67 for many boomers, and I believe was just raised to 68 for the next group.
Because we spend so many hours at work, it is clearly an important are of life and an important venue in which to study behavior…
.and that is the role of Industrial/Organization Psychology….I/O Psychology.
I/O applies the science of psychology to work and the workplace…interests include:
1. The work environment
2. The selection of the right person for a particular job
3. The influence of attitudes on job performance
4. The ways people work together in groups.
The “I” - industrial - is more concerned with maximizing efficiency, safety, and cost effectiveness.
The “O” - organizational - is more concerned with the human relations processes that contribute to feelings of fullfillment
1.Origins of industrial and organizational psychology
I/O has its roots in the history of industry and both WWI and WWII when psychologists were called upon to help with the military concerns of recruitment, selection for job assignment and morale.
3 important influences on the development of I/O
1. Scientific management
2. Ergonomics
3. Human relations approach to management
1. Scientific management - the managerial philosophy that emphasizes the worker as a well-oiled machine and the importance of finding the most efficient methods for performing any work-related task.
Engineers, not psychologists, were the first to apply scientific methods to the workplace.
Early 1900’s engineer Frederick Taylor - the mastermind behind scientific management
This approach was influential in American manufacturing
Scientific management led to the use of the assembly line - first used in 1913 and invented by Henry Ford, the founder of the Ford Motor Company.
Prior to this, all products were made entirely from start to finish by one person or a small group of people all working an all aspects together.
With the assembly line, and using a conveyor belt, the worker stayed in one place and the part and only one part was delivered.
Frank and Lillian Gilbreth - engineer and psychologist - pioneered time and motion studies - figuring out the precise movements to complete a task - efficiency experts
WWI - psychologists became involved in selection and training of recruits - remember Terman who was involved in the first massive use of IQ with military recruits
Again in WWI psychologists involved with the military and then began to expand their involvement into private industry to help employers improve efficience.
2. The 2 important influence on the development of I/O was:
Ergonomics: - also called “human factors” - a field that combines engineering and
psychology to design products that promote the efficiency and comfort of a person on the job.
Ergonomics began in WWII when the military applied psychological research from the workplace setting to design jets that were both efficient and safe for the pilot.
See text p. 489 figure 13.1 Building a better mouse
3. The 3rd important influence on I/O was the Human Relations Approach to Mangement
The human relations approach emphasizes the psychological characteristics of workers and managers, stressing the significance of factors such as morale, attitudes, values, and humane treatment of workers.
Hawthorne studies - Elton Mayo - 1927 - 1932
Studied how various work conditions could influence productivity
The effects of room lighting on performance
Control group - the lighting remained constant
Experimental group - were given a variety of lighting conditions
Both the control and experimental groups did better and continued to do better over time
Hawthorne effect - the tendency of individuals to perform better simply because of being singled out and being made to feel important
Experiments were later criticized - that there might have been other factors involved - such as social factors - the depression - being observed or studied would make them work harder - did not want to lose their jobs
Nevertheless - these are considered landmark studies
The studies presented the case that the workplace is a social system - and their performance is thus subject to social pressures and group norms…….
Mayo was also critical of the emphasis on efficiency and assembly lines - felt it alienated the workers from the product ( only saw a part of it) and their co-workers - couldn’t move about because stuck to the assembly line
Mayo said it was an error to assume that what was good for business was good for the employee
His studies moved researchers toward the Human Relations approach to management
2.Industrial Psychology
Focuses on increasing efficiency and productivity through the appropriate use of employees which are “human resources”
Industrial psychology has a 4- pronged emphasis:
1. Job analysis and job evaluation
2. Employee selection
3. Training
4. Performance appraisal
1. Job analysis and job evaluation
Job analysis is the process of generating a description of what a job involves, including the knowledge and skills that are necessary to carry out the job’s functions.
KSAOs - knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics - found in a job analysis
#9
Department of Labor - Directory of Occupational Titles - job descriptions
Look up jobs to find examples of job analysis
Job analysis often defines essential functions as well as nonessential functions
This is important to remain in compliance with the Americans with Disabilities Act
(ADA) of 1990...Title 1... which made it illegal to refuse employment or a promotion to someoneWith a disability that prevents the person from performing nonessential job functions.
Ex. Psychologist - essential function - ability to perform counseling, write reports, etc.
Nonessential - walking or driving
Job evaluation - involves scientifically determining the monetary value of a particular occupation.
Compensable factors - the factors that determine the level of compensation for a job
For ex. - the consequences of error on the job ex. Pilot
Level of education required - surgeon
Each occupation receives points based upon compensable factors which help in determining wages………….but not always logical - ex. Teachers, police, prof. athletes
2. The 2nd area of emphasis in Industrial Psychology is Personnel Selection
After developing a job analysis, the challenge for the industrial psychologist is to select the applicants that best match the job.
Tests - are methods for screening applicants
An integrity test is designed to assess whether the applicant is likely to be dishonest on the job. - it samples attitudes about lying.
Sample item: It’s OK to lie if you know you won’t get caught.
Biographical inventory - another type of test which involves asking the applicant about life experiences that seem verifiable.
The thinking behind this test is that applicants are less likely to lie about items that seem to be part of their permanent record….could be checked out.
Sample item: What was your college GPA?
Interviews - are another method for screening applicants.
We have discussed several forms of bias that can have an impact on the validity of interviews and interviewers’ judgments.
In Chapter 1 we discussed the concept of judgmental overconfidence - that interviewers
tend to overestimate their intuitive abilities in selecting job applicants.
They remember
the times that they selected someone for a job and it worked out. But what they don’t know about are the times they didn’t select someone who then went on to get a similar job with someone else and do well in that environment.
This is also known as interviewer illusion, - specifically, the interviewers’ mistaken tendency to believe in their own ability to discern the truth in an interview.
Also, what might happen if you arrive late for an interview because the receptionist forgot to let them know you were there?….fundamental attribution error - the interviewer will see this as a personality trait rather than a situational problem.
First impressions can also be subject to gender and ethnic or racial biases.
To protect against this, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 - Title 7 - revised in 1991 was passed.
Under the Civil Rights Act it is illegal to deny someone employment on the basis of gender or ethnicity.
Because of the potential biases that we’ve discussed that can occur in a general interview, increasingly companies are using structured interviews - in which applicants are all asked the same specific questions that methodically ask questions designed to get useful information for the interviewer.
Responses to the questions are written down to avoid memory bias.
Rather than asking simple yes or no questions….do you get along with others?… the question might instead be…..tell me about a time when you had a conflict with someone on the job and how you handled it…
Research indicates that structured interviews are superior to unstructured interviews in predicting job performance.
Companies also use a series of interviews, including groups of interviewers, to try to overcome any individual biases that can occur in a single interview.
Yet another method for screening job applicants is through work samples and work related exercises.
Work samples - photographer - photos
Psychologist - reports
Architect - plans
Exercises - a mock job-related task - report, design, etc.
3. The third area of emphasis in Industrial Psychology is Training
Human resources training often includes training on Sexual Harassment in theWorkplace.
Sexual harassment is considered a workplace incivility and can create a toxic work environment.
Sexual harassment is defined as unwelcome behavior or conduct of a sexual nature that offends, humiliates, or intimidates another person.
In the U.S., sexual harassment is illegal.
It is a form of sexual discrimination that violates Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
Victims of sexual harassment can be men and women.
The victim doesn't have to be of the opposite sex of the harasser. There can be same-sex harassment.
Also, the victim doesn't have to be just the person harassed. The victim can be anyone affected by the offensive conduct.
ex. A woman who is offended by sexual comments made to other women at a workplace may be considered a victim of sexual harassment.
The harasser can be a co-worker, supervisor, and even a non-employee.
Sexual harassment has 2 forms:
1. quid pro qup - 'this for that'
consists of unwelcome sexual advances and/or requests for sexual favors
The victim is expected to tolerate the behavior in order to keep his/her job.
Sexual harassment occurs if the victim refuses and, as a result, is fired, demoted, or denied a promotion.
2. hostile work environment sexual harassment
When the unwanted sexual behavior interferes with work performance or creates and intimidating or offensive work environment.
Reporting sexual harassment can be stressful.
The right to be protected from sexual harassment is not just limited to the workplace. As a student, you have the right to be protected from sexual harassment in your school or college environment.
Another form of workplace incivility is bullying.
Bullying is considered to be a form of workplace violence.
Bullying can include verbal abusiveness and other forms of intimidating behavior.
Workplace bullying behavior is intended to embarass, humiliate, or intimidate a person so that the person will suffer professionally.
Research indicates that nearly 40% of workers report having been bullied.
72% of bullies are bosses.
The majority of bullies are women.
Although some states have tried to pass legislation, bullying in the workplace is still not against the law!
.
